According to the information below why would “

Fair value is the price that would be received to sell an asset or paid to transfer a liability in an orderly transaction between market participants at the measurement date. Where the classification of a financial asset or liability results in it being measured at fair value, wherever possible, the fair value is determined by reference to the quoted bid or offer price in the most advantageous active market to which the Group has immediate access. An adjustment for credit risk (CVA) is also incorporated into the fair value as appropriate as well as an adjustment for funding costs (FVA) related to uncollateralised over-the-counter derivatives. The fair value measurement technique of each class of instrument is described below.

Instrument

Loans and advances

Deposits and other borrowings

Bonds, notes and subordinated debt and other debt issues

Trading and hedging derivatives

Trading instruments and debt instruments

Equity instruments

Other financial assets and liabilities

Fair value measurement technique

The fair value of loans and advances that are priced based on a variable rate with no contractual repricing tenor are assumed to equate to the carrying value. The fair value of all other loans and advances are generally calculated using discounted cash flow models based on the maturity of the loans and advances. The discount rates applied are based on interest rates at reporting date for similar types of loans and advances, if the loans and advances were performing at reporting date.

The fair value of deposits and other borrowings that are non-interest-bearing, at call or at a fixed rate that reprice within six months of reporting date are assumed to equate to the carrying value. The fair value of other deposits and other borrowings is calculated using discounted cash flow models based on the deposit type and maturity.

The fair values of bonds, notes and subordinated debt and other debt issues are calculated based on a discounted cash flow model using a yield curve appropriate to the remaining maturity of the instruments and appropriate credit spreads, or in some instances are calculated based on market quoted prices when there is sufficient liquidity in the market.

The fair values of trading and hedging derivative assets and liabilities are obtained from quoted closing market prices at reporting date, discounted cash flow models or option pricing models as appropriate.

The fair values of trading securities and debt instruments at fair value through other comprehensive income are based on quoted closing market prices at reporting date. Where securities are unlisted and quoted market prices are not available, the Group obtains the fair value by means of discounted cash flows and other valuation techniques that are commonly used by market participants. These techniques address factors such as interest rates, credit risk and liquidity.

The fair value of equity instruments at fair value through other comprehensive income is estimated on the basis of the actual and forecasted financial position and results of the underlying assets or net assets taking into consideration their risk profile.

The fair values of other financial assets and liabilities are based on quoted closing market prices and data or valuation techniques, appropriate to the nature and type of the underlying instrument.

The carrying amounts of cash and liquid assets, due from and to other banks, due from customers on acceptances, other assets, other liabilities and amounts due from and to controlled entities, approximate their fair value as they are short-term in nature or are receivable or payable on demand. Guarantees, letters of credit, performance related contingencies and credit related commitments are generally not sold or traded and estimated fair values are not readily ascertainable. The fair value of these items are not calculated, as very few of the commitments extending beyond six months would commit the Group to a predetermined rate of interest, and the fees attaching to these commitments are the same as those currently charged for similar arrangements.

Fair value for a net open position that is a financial liability quoted in an active market is the current offer price, and for a financial asset the bid price, multiplied by the number of units of the instrument held or issued.

Transfers between levels of the fair value hierarchy are deemed to have occurred at the beginning of the reporting period in which the transfer occurs.

Key judgements and estimates

A significant portion of financial instruments are carried on the balance sheet at fair value.

Where no active market exists for a particular asset or liability, the Group uses a valuation technique to arrive at the fair value, including the use of transaction prices obtained in recent arm’s length transactions, discounted cash flow analysis, option pricing models and other valuation techniques, based on market conditions and risks existing at reporting date. In doing so, fair value is estimated using a valuation technique that makes maximum use of observable market inputs and places minimal reliance upon entity-specific inputs.

The best evidence of the fair value of a financial instrument at initial recognition is the transaction price (i.e. the fair value of the consideration given or received) unless the fair value of that instrument is evidenced by comparison with other observable current market transactions in the same instrument (i.e. without modification or repackaging) or based on a valuation technique whose variables include only data from observable markets. When such evidence exists, the Group recognises the difference between the transaction price and the fair value in profit or loss on initial recognition (i.e. on day one). 

Fair value hierarchy

The level in the fair value hierarchy within which a fair value measurement is categorised is determined on the basis of the lowest level input that is significant to the fair value measurement in its entirety. The fair value hierarchy is as follows:

• Level 1 – Financial instruments that have been valued by reference to unadjusted quoted prices for identical financial assets or
• financial liabilities in active markets. Financial instruments included in this category are Commonwealth of Australia and New
• Zealand government bonds, and spot and exchange traded derivatives.
• Level 2 – Financial instruments that have been valued through valuation techniques incorporating inputs other than quoted
• prices within Level 1 that are observable for the financial asset or financial liability, either directly (as prices) or indirectly (derived from prices). Financial instruments included in this category are over-the-counter trading and hedging derivatives, semi-government bonds, financial institution and corporate bonds, mortgage-backed securities, loans measured at fair value, and issued bonds, notes and subordinated debt measured at fair value.
• Level 3 – Financial instruments that have been valued through valuation techniques incorporating inputs that are not based on observable market data. Unobservable inputs are those not readily available in an active market due to market illiquidity or complexity of the product. Financial instruments included in this category are bespoke trading derivatives, trading derivatives where the credit valuation adjustment is considered unobservable and significant to the valuation, and certain asset-backed securities valued using unobservable inputs.
• Transfers into and out of Level 3 occur due to changes in whether the inputs to the valuation techniques are observable. Where inputs are no longer observable the fair value measurement is transferred into Level 3. Conversely, a measurement is transferred out of Level 3 when inputs become observable.
• The Group’s exposure to fair value measurements based in full or in part on unobservable inputs is restricted to a small number of financial instruments, which comprise an insignificant component of the portfolios in which they belong. As such, a change in the assumption used to value the instruments as at 30 September 2018 attributable to reasonably possible alternatives would not have a material effect.