As you read the article you choose for this assignment, consider the following questions: How could the topic of this article apply to your personal or professional life? How could it apply to an organization you have observed?

The writing you submit must meet the following requirements:

 be at least two pages in length,

 identify the main topic/question,

 identify the author’s intended audience,

 summarize the article,

 analyze the article,

 evaluate how the article is related to your topic, and

 explain what you learned from this article.

Format your Article Review using APA . Use your own words, and include citations and references as needed to

avoid plagiarize.

ARTICLE BELOW:

During the past two decades, more and more organizations have been going global, and, as a result, more and more employees are being sent on international assignments. For the most part, though, the percentage of females being sent on these assignments is much lower than the percentage of males. Several recent studies have suggested that the supervisor-subordinate relationship might be a critical determinant of who gets selected for expatriate assignments. To explore this issue in some detail, the leader-member exchange (LMX) model is used to examine the link between supervisor-subordinate relationships and selection for international assignments. Strategies that female employees can use to improve their chances of being sent on international assignments are also suggested.

Several recent studies have shown a significant positive relationship between an organization’s bottom line and its ability to develop global leaders (e.g., Black, Gregersen, Mendenhall, & Stroh, 1999; Stroh, Varma, & Valy-Durbin, 2000; Travers & Pemberton, 2000). In that proper selection is a key determinant of whether an international assignment is a success or a failure, selecting the best candidates for international assignments is clearly an extremely important task (Arthur & Bennett, 1995; Tung, 1998). Yet, as a close look at the selection process reveals, there are some curious anomalies in who is selected for these assignments.

For example, although as of 1998 women represented 47% of the U.S. workforce (Feltes & Steinhaus, 1998; Catalyst, 2000), they comprised a mere 13% to 14% of employees on international assignments (Solomon, 1998; Tung, 1998). This imbalance in male-female representation for international assignments has critical implications for organizational success, as well as for women’s careers. If women are not sent on international assignments as often as men, their chances of moving up the corporate ladder are limited, thus contributing to the glass ceiling. In this paper, we explore why so few females are sent on international assignments, by applying an existing theory to help explain this phenomenon. Because it is typically supervisors who decide which employees are given these often prestigious assignments, an investigation of the supervisor-subordinate relationship appears to be an excellent starting point from which to explain why the proportion of women is so small.

WHY ARE WOMEN BEING LEFT AT HOME?

Several studies have examined why such a disproportionately small percentage of women are selected for international assignments (Adler, 1984; Ioannou, 1994). For example, of more than 1,000 students graduating from MBA programs that Adler surveyed, equal percentages of men and women were interested in accepting international assignments. Similarly, female executives interviewed for a study conducted by International Business scoffed at the idea that women were less willing than men to accept these assignments (Ioannou, 1994).

Studies have also examined biases among managers in their willingness to send women on international assignments. For example, Adler (1984) noted that the management in more than half the companies that participated in her study said they hesitated to send women overseas. One explanation managers often offer for this unwillingness is that women encounter more prejudice on international assignments than men, making it difficult for women on international assignments to succeed. In fact, research shows that, rather than being less successful than their male counterparts, women on international assignments are often more successful (Adler, 1987; Bourne, 1999). According to Tung (1998) and Stroh and her colleagues (Stroh et al., 2000), women assigned to culturally “tough” countries are also quite effective, even though they may initially experience greater prejudice from the host country because they are women. The obvious question, then, is, why are companies hesitant to send women overseas?

One recent study shows that the most important factor in being selected for an international assignment is one’s supervisor (Stroh et al., 2000). In this connection, Varma, Stroh, and Valy-Durbin (2000) collected data from female international assignees and their supervisors in 44 companies, that were members of the International Personnel Association, to study the impact of supervisor-subordinate relationships on female employees’ selection for international assignments. The researchers reported that supervisors perceived their relationships with their female subordinates as much better than the female subordinates did. At the same time, the female subordinates showed a significantly higher agreement with their female supervisors than with their male supervisors in their perceptions of these relationships. Consequently, an analysis of supervisor-subordinate relationships may shed important insight into why so few women are sent on international assignments.

SUPERVISOR-SUBORDINATE RELATIONSHIPS

The leader-member exchange theory (see e.g., Graen & Cashman, 1975) proposes that supervisors classify their subordinates into two groups–those in the in-group and those in the out-group–on the basis of the subordinates’ negotiated roles. Research indicates that, among other reasons, a subordinate is put into an in-group if the superior believes that the subordinate is motivated to assume greater responsibility in the organization (Liden & Graen, 1980). As a result, members of this group become the objects of the superior’s attention, receive more information, exert greater influence, have more confidence, and are of greater interest to their superior (Dansereau et al., 1975; Varma & Stroh, 2001). Further, members of in-groups are characterized by high trust, interaction, support, and formal/informal rewards (Dienesch & Liden, 1986; Lagace, Castleberry, & Ridnour, 1993). In contrast, as superiors try to manage their time, they fail to give employees in the out-group the support they need to advance. Research supports this idea that organizational effectiveness may be determined at least in part by internal selection processes in which differentiation plays a critical role (Dienesch & Liden, 1986; Sparrowe & Liden, 1997).

The impact of this classification appears to go beyond the initial performance ratings members of the two so-called groups are assigned. Not only do out-group members receive limited resources and little mentoring but, as an effect of a self-fulfilling prophecy, they may internalize their superiors’ negative expectations and react accordingly (Liden, Wayne, & Stilwell, 1993; Varma & Stroh, 2001). Given that the quality of these relationships has critical effects on the performance ratings, promotions, and assignments subordinates are offered, the factors that determine the group to which a subordinate is likely to be relegated warrants closer examination.

What Determines the Quality of Relationship?

Dienesch and Liden (1986) have suggested that key to determining the quality of the leader-member or supervisor-subordinate relationship are such individual characteristics as race and gender and such nonperformance behaviors as personal relationships. In this connection, the similarity-attraction paradigm (Byrne, 1971) proposes that individuals who share certain characteristics in common elicit positive responses in one another and hence form positive relationships. Interpersonal attraction and liking are critical to the development of this relationship. Several studies (e.g., Deluga, 1998; Engle & Lord, 1997; Phillips & Bedeian, 1994) have empirically confirmed the impact of similarity in key dimensions on the quality of the relationship that develops between supervisors and subordinates. Specifically, the studies have shown that supervisors perceive themselves to be “more” similar to subordinates whose demographic profiles are similar to their own and tend to include demographically similar subordinates in in-groups at significantly higher rates than other subordinates. In this connection, Ibarra (1992) found that men tended to show a much higher degree of homophily than women. In other words, the male subjects were found to be more prone to forming ties with other male employees, than with other female employees. In a related study, Colella and Varma (2001) studied the impact of a subordinate’s disability on the supervisor-subordinate relationship. They found that supervisors reported significantly lower LMX (supervisor-subordinate relationship quality) for subordinates with disabilities, than for subordinates without disabilities. In other words, subordinates with disabilities were placed in the supervisor’s out-group. When investigating the strategies that individuals with disabilities might employ to overcome their out-group status, Colella and Varma (2001) found that when individuals with disabilities engaged in upward influencing behavior (e.g., self-enhancement, where the subordinates brought their achievements to the notice of the supervisor), the relationship with the supervisor was significantly higher than when they did not engage in such behavior. These findings offer important implications for women employees. First, that women too are likely to be placed in out groups by their male supervisors, and, second, that women can overcome this problem, by engaging in upward influencing tactics.

Implications of LMX for the Selection of Female International Assignees

Given that nearly all senior management positions are held by men, and that senior-level management determines who will be selected for overseas assignments (Harris, 1993), investigating the role of gender in determining the quality of the supervisor-subordinate relationship is critical to understanding the impact of this relationship on the development of women’s global careers. Larwood and Blackmore (1978), for instance, found that females were more likely to ask females to be partners for assignments, while males were more likely to ask males. Given that the selection of individuals for international assignments is the responsibility of supervisors, and given that most supervisors are male (Harris, 1993), it is no longer as surprising that the percentage of women who are selected for international assignments is extremely low.

Research has also shown that employees who acquire in-group status receive greater latitude in developing their roles, more inside information, greater influence in decision making, stronger support for their actions, and more consideration than do members with low-quality leader-member exchange relationships (see, e.g., Graen & Schiemann, 1978; Graen, Lidel & Hoel, 1982; Colella & Varma, 2001). Since women are likely to receive less information as a result of their out-group status, they may not even be aware of international opportunities as they arise. Hence, we would expect the number of women applying for such positions to be lower as a result of the limited interaction they might have with their supervisors because of being members of the out-group.

Suggested Interventions for Women

Clearly, women need to find ways to overcome the negative impact their supervisor-subordinate relationships can have on their careers. One of the strategies that has been identified as very effective in helping individuals improve their supervisors’ perceptions of them is known as upward-influencing behaviors. This is defined as a class of behaviors employed by a person to increase their chances of being included in the supervisor’s in-group (Wortman & Linsenmeier, 1977). Research has shown that subordinates have used these tactics very successfully to improve their supervisors’ perceptions (e.g., Ansari & Kapoor, 1987; Colella & Varma, 2001; Kipnis, Scmidt, & Wilkinson, 1980).

Perhaps more important, the use of upward-influencing behaviors may succeed in influencing supervisors’ causal attributions of employees (Green & Mitchell, 1979), and their allegiance to their subordinates (Lowe & Goldstein, 1970), resulting in an improvement in the overall quality of their relationships (Dienesch & Liden, 1986; Wayne et al., 1994). In particular, two types of upward-influencing behavior–self-enhancement and opinion conformity–can significantly increase the quality of leader-member exchanges. Self-enhancement involves making one’s supervisor aware of one’s competencies or achievements. On the other hand, opinion conformity involves making efforts to find common areas of work interests with one’s supervisor. This might also include, where appropriate, finding opportunities to socialize with one’s supervisor and to develop informal ties–for example, playing golf with the supervisor or attending the same cultural events, and so forth

These results corroborate earlier research indicating that upward influencing behavior results in a supervisor increasing their allegiance to an employee and to better performance appraisals. Given these findings, we would expect female subordinates who engage in upward influencing behaviors in their interactions with their supervisors to develop higher-quality leader-member exchanges than female employees who do not use these techniques. Further, we would expect the development of these higher-quality relationships to result in an increase in the chances of female subordinate being selected for assignments overseas. In this connection, Ibarra (1992) noted that “women are likely to benefit from the development of greater ties to their male colleagues” (p. 441).

It should be noted that we are not proposing that women use upward-influencing behavior in a nonwork context to improve their stock in a company. Rather, we are advocating acceptable and appropriate workplace behavior (see, e.g., Tedeschi & Melburg, 1984) that is used successfully by a large section of the workforce. For example, as we note above, it would be very useful if women brought their work-related achievements to the notice of their supervisors, on a consistent basis. As the leader-member exchange theory notes, supervisors often do not have the time to pay the same amount of attention to all their subordinates. Given that women might often be in the outgroups, their achievements may not come to the attention of their supervisor(s). This becomes a more salient issue when these achievements/ competencies are related to the women’s ability to successfully take on international assignments. We, of course, recognize that upward influencing behaviors are bound by cultural influences, and that the expatriate will have to use her judgment as to the appropriateness of the behaviors.

Alternative Strategies

In addition to upward-influencing behavior, women who are eager to be sent on overseas assignments should develop realistic plans of action. As a first step in making their desires known, women should begin expressing their interest in being sent on foreign assignment as soon as possible, ideally in job interviews. A job interview is an opportunity not only for a company to appraise a candidate but for the candidate to size up the desirability of the employer. If the woman detects opposition to her interest in working overseas, she should seek employment elsewhere. Women should also be told that management might need to be reminded that they are interested in being considered for international assignments. Thus, women should be encouraged to continue to make their interest known long after they have been hired (Feltes & Steinhaus, 1998). In addition to ensuring that their superiors know they are interested in foreign assignments, women should become knowledgeable about current and future overseas businesses and any other important global issues of concern to their companies. A woman who is an expert on international issues is more likely to be considered for a foreign assignment than a woman who does not have this expertise.

Women should also consider enrolling in study abroad programs and taking language courses, while in school. Being fluent in a second (or third) language may increase a woman’s chances of being selected to work overseas. Women should also network with other women who have been successful on assignments abroad. Female international assignees can also be good sources of advice on the qualities candidates need to succeed on specific foreign assignments (Feltes & Steinhaus, 1998).

All of these strategies are likely to improve supervisors’ perceptions of their female subordinates and thereby increase the chances of their having higher-quality leader-member exchange relationships with their supervisors. In turn, as noted above, this higher-quality relationship should lead to an increase in their chances of being selected for international assignments.

Suggested Interventions for Organizations

Several researchers have argued that companies are not doing enough to ensure that their managers follow careful and systematic recruitment and selection procedures when assigning employees for jobs overseas (Westwood & Leung, 1994; Stroh et al., 2000). In particular, women and men need to be treated equally when evaluating the best candidates for these assignments. Indeed, it is ironic that men seem to be preferred for international assignments, since it is quite possible that women are more suited to international assignments (Tung, 1993). In this connection, Tung’s (1993) model of cross-national communication patterns shows that women’s communication styles may be more suited to certain international assignments than are men’s communication styles.

As such, organizations should examine their practices to ensure selection decisions are made on the basis of performance, and suitability for international assignments, and not on the basis of unsubstantiated assumptions and gender biases (Westwood & Leung, 1994; Stroh et al., 2000). Further, organizations should also ensure that every employee is notified in writing of international opportunities as they arise.

As further steps, human resource professionals need to examine their policies and procedures to ensure they are making the best use of all their resources. The possibility that men and women have better or worse relationships with their supervisors presents an obstacle to human resource managers as they attempt to evaluate candidates for expatriation. If a man is more likely to be selected for an international assignment, regardless of whether he is performing better than a woman, company resources are clearly not being utilized effectively. Thus, training human resource professionals to recognize that the quality of leader-member exchanges varies is important if the interventions suggested above are to be effective.

Finally, human resource professionals should evaluate all performance reviews for fairness. HR managers should also strive to ensure that all employees are receiving sufficient support from their supervisors to reach their goals. Employees who are not receiving sufficient support from their supervisors should be assigned a mentor or possibly even a new supervisor.

CONCLUSION

The leader-member exchange model offers an explanation for why so few women are in overseas positions. The suggested interventions women can practice to overcome the negative effects of their supervisor-subordinate relationships should help offset these women’s disadvantages. When women employ upward-influencing techniques and develop plans of action, their chances of securing international assignments should increase significantly. Because international experience is closely linked to advancement in organizations, by using these techniques women should enhance their careers and increase their chances for professional advancement.

Women are clearly interested in international positions and have demonstrated that they can perform successfully in global assignments. Especially with increased global competition, organizations have no choice but to make the best use of their resources, including their women employees. Understanding the impact that supervisor-subordinate relationships have on selection decisions will help companies remove unfair biases inherent in the selection of employees for international positions while, simultaneously, promoting and advancing the careers of some of the best and brightest talent in the organization. While supervisor-subordinate relationships are undoubtedly complex, we do believe that making organizations aware of the potential for bias is a critical first step towards correcting the imbalance in selection for international assignments.