Chapter 5:
Thinking Like a System

Ecology and Complexity in a Globalized World
Manuel Riemer, Stephanie M. Reich, Scotney D. Evans,

Geoffrey Nelson and Isaac Prilleltensky

§ Ecological model and systems theory.
§ Systems thinking and the ecological model for a deeper

understanding of social systems and social problems.
§ How macro-level contextual phenomena such as

globalization and neoliberalism influence health and well-
being.

Learning Objectives

Introduction to Systems Thinking

CP is primarily focused on the relationship between
individuals and the multiple social systems in which
they are embedded. In CP we always need to consider
the wider context when attempting to understand
people.

The ecological model, a contextual understanding and
systems thinking are central to the way the community
psychologist thinks and acts on social issues.

General Systems Theory (Forrester, 1971,1994; Von Bertalanffy, 1968)

– Understanding that all socioecological systems are
marked by interconnectedness within dynamic, ever-
changing processes of self-organization, growth and
adaptation.

Systems Thinking
– Worldview and process
– Understand how systems function by examining

interrelationships between parts and the root causes of
targeted issues

Systems Theory and Systems Thinking

Key Aspects When Thinking About Social Systems:

1. Elements and subcomponents of social systems are interrelated and
involve interconnected parts in a functioning whole.

2. Social systems are open systems.
3. Social systems are dynamic and always changing.
4. Any level or unit within a system can be viewed as a system.
5. Properties of systems are emergent.
6. Social system involve people and people have ideas, beliefs,

assumptions, attitudes, and worldviews and these enter into systems
as properties.

7. Conflict and the exercise of power are inherent in human systems.

(Burton, 2003; Burton & Kagan, 2015; Foster-Fishman et al., 2007; Harrison, 2005; Kagan,
Burton, Duckett, Lawthom, & Siddiquee, 2011)

A systems approach means viewing a system with a
specific problem focus or questions and attempt to
identify the system attributes (also known as
“leverage points”) that are most relevant to making
change.

Foster-Fishman and Watson (2012) use a system
cloverleaf to help better understand the different
parts that make up a system and identify targets for
change.

The Ecological Metaphor
The metaphor of ecology is defined as the
relationship between individuals and the multiple
social systems in which they are embedded. This is
based on Bronfenbrenner’s (1977,1979) ecological
systems theory (EST).

EST identified four systems- the microsystem,
mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem. He later
introduced a fifth system, the chronosystem. Each
system is nested within a larger system, moving from
smaller to more complex.

System Definition Example

Microsystem Where individuals have direct social
interactions with each other

Family, close friends

Mesosystem Where two or more microsystems come
together

Neighbourhood playground,
teacher-parent conference

Exosystem Settings that influence the individual but in
which the individual does not directly
participate

Education policy-making

Macrosystem Broad cultural influences or ideological
patterns that characterize a given society

Neoliberalism, The “American
Dream”

Chronosystem Reflecting change or continuity across time
that influence each of the other systems

Transition from high school to
college, political revolutions

1. Interdependence
– Asserts that every event or phenomenon should be seen

as part of a whole and only properly understood with
reference to every other part of the larger system (Ife,
2002).

– All levels of the ecosystem are interconnected, thus a
change at one level will have ripple effects that impact
other parts of the system
• E.g., disproportionate imprisonment of African Americans is one

of the reasons for elevated rates of HIV infection among this
population (pg. 96).

Ecological Principles

2. Cycling of Resources
– Focuses on the identification, development and allocation of

resources within systems

– Resources can include money, knowledge, leadership,
networks, professional expertise and time

– Draws attention to potential untapped resources in a system
• E.g., Instead of using money for the war on drugs, Portugal

allocated money and resources to treatment and prevention, rather
than incarceration (pg. 97).

Ecological Principles

3. Adaptation
– Individuals and systems must cope with and adapt to

changing conditions in an ecosystem.

– Resilience is a key concept within this principle as it
asserts the ability of a system or community to survive
disruption and to anticipate, adapt, and flourish in the
face of change.
• E.g., Developing and implementing climate-adaptive solutions

for flood-prone communities (pg. 97).

Ecological Principles

4. Succession
– The predictable and orderly changes over time in the structure

of an ecological system.
– In CP, succession is understanding historical swings of

perspective and power that influence how social issues are
framed and addressed (Levine & Levine, 1992; Tseng et al., 2002).

• E.g., In the 2020 U.S. elections, the Republican party is pushing toward
protectionism and nationalism. How will these values influence the
system as whole as opposed to more liberal values?

These ecological principles together provide guidance for
how to take the environment into account when attempting
to understand and intervene social systems.

Ecological Principles

Mainstream psychology too often focuses on the
individual while neglecting the social systems at play, thus
using an ecological metaphor helps frame problems and
solutions at multiple levels of analysis.

Environments also affect individuals differently, which is
known as person-environment fit. To understand what
environment provides a good fit, O’Neill (2000) suggests
using cognitive CP to highlight the importance of
individual and environmental qualities and their
interrelationships.

Importance of the Ecological Metaphor

Ecological perspective addresses the meta-value of holism.
– Emphasis on holistic thinking, feeling, and acting.

Implications of the ecological metaphor for community
intervention:
• Consider both individual and setting characteristics
• Dimension of time is highlighted
• The role and qualities of the interventionist
• Focus on goals at multiple levels of analysis
• Social change is not linear. Change at one part can have ripple

effects across multiple systems
• Community psychologist work with rather than on people.

• Does not specifically assist in tackling issues that
are fundamental to social justice.
– Ecological perspective needs to be complemented by

a concern for social justice.
• Does not consider power differences within

ecosystems because of the emphasis on circular
causality.

• Limited focus on natural ecology and
environmental issues.

Limitations of the Ecological Metaphor

Through systems thinking and the ecological model, we are
reminded of the broader forces shaping human and
community development. These forces are referred to as the
ideological macro-level, which encompasses and permeates
the other levels.

Ideology: a comprehensive set of beliefs and conscious and
unconscious ideas that dominant society.

Ideologies serve to either positively or negatively control
how individuals and groups adapt to their environments.

Complexity in a Globalized World

Neoliberalism
– a theory of political economic practices based on the

assumption that human wellbeing can best be advanced by
maximizing individualism and entrepreneurial freedoms.

– Underlying ideas: individual liberty, competition, individual
responsibility, and work ethic.

– Problem: changes the social contract between the individual
and the community towards more extreme individualism.

Globalization
– Neoliberal reality = globalized ideology of competition
– Creates economic exploitation and disenfranchisement of

disadvantaged people in both developed and developing
countries.

Ideologies in CP

• CP is concerned with the role of social context in
wellbeing, and that “context” encompasses all levels of
ecology.

• Different models can be used when taking an ecological
systems perspective.

• Need to recognize and understand macro-level power
structures and ideologies.

• Many social problems CP focuses on are a product of
neoliberal policies and globalization.

Chapter Summary